Carbon transfers among many forms {carbon cycle, Earth}.
ocean
Rivers remove land sediments, and calcium carbonate enters sea. Carbonate buffers sea and is in equilibrium with carbon dioxide in air. Carbonates can becomes shells or skeletons. Eaten shells and skeletons later sink and dissolve. Carbonates can remain in sponges, algae, and coral reefs. Algae reefs began 2,000,000,000 years ago. Animal reefs began 600,000,000 years ago. Reefs collapsed 530,000,000; 350,000,000; 225,000,000; and 65,000,000 years ago.
organisms
Autotroph organisms get carbon from carbon dioxide. Heterotroph organisms get carbon from glucose.
cells
Photosynthetic cells convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose. Cells break down glucose to carbon dioxide and water for energy.
carbon
Carbon atoms can bond to carbon atoms and other non-metals, with single and multiple bonds, to make rings, chains, and branching chains. Many polarities and charge structures are possible. Carbon covalent bonding provides stability, alterability, and variety in organic molecules.
Cells make nitrogen into nitrate or ammonia, then make nitrate or ammonia into amino acids, then break down amino acids to ammonia and urea, and then break down ammonia and urea to nitrate and nitrite {nitrogen cycle, biochemistry}. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria {chemolithotroph} change nitrogen gas to ammonia. Nitrate-making bacteria make nitrate from ammonia.
Cells reduce oxygen and hydrogen donors to water, and then oxidize water to oxygen {oxygen cycle}. Aerobe organisms use oxygen as electron acceptors to cause reduction. Obligate-anaerobe organisms use sugar as electron acceptor to cause reduction. Facultative-aerobe organisms use either oxygen or sugar but prefer oxygen as electron acceptor to cause reduction. Anaerobe organisms do not use oxygen.
Water is both inside and outside cells {water cycle, biochemistry}. Water is 70% of human body weight. Cell water has phosphate buffer and is at pH 6.8. Cell proteins make high osmotic pressure. Intercellular fluid has bicarbonate buffer and is at pH 7.2. Osmotic pressure is low outside cells.
Cells change light energy into chemical-bond energy {energy cycle, cells}. Cells make glucose and can make ATP high-energy bonds. Cells diffuse ATP to all cell parts. Cells use ATP to phosphorylate other compounds. Cells use ATP to make acetyl-CoA for making carbon-carbon bonds. Cells use high-energy compounds to synthesize molecules, cause movement, send electrical signals, or generate heat. Cells break down synthesized molecules, dissipate electric energy, and make energy into heat through friction.
reduced molecule
Cells use ATP to make NADH, NADPH, and FADH2 [2 is subscript] electron acceptors and hydrogen donors. Reduced molecules, which can oxidize to release energy, store energy for biochemical reactions. Oxidation-reduction reactions are reversible. NAD can add one hydrogen atom to make reduced NADH. Phosphated NADP can reduce to NADPH. FAD can add two hydrogens to make reduced FADH2 [2 is subscript].
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) transfers energy {ATP cycle}. Cells cannot store ATP. ATP cannot cross membranes.
functions
ATP actively transports, contracts muscle, phosphorylates molecules, makes thioester with acetyl-CoA, makes enols, and makes guanidiene.
metabolism
ATP can break down to adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and pyrophosphate. ATP can break down to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and orthophosphate. Orthophosphate transfers to arginine or creatinine. Cells regenerate ATP by ADP and orthophosphate oxidation, in respiration pathway or glycolysis pathway.
acidity
At high pH, energy in ATP is less, because electron repulsion is less.
concentration
If ATP concentration increases, energy in ATP is less, because dissociation is less.
magnesium
Magnesium binds to ATP phosphates. If magnesium increases, energy in ATP decreases, because magnesium blocks charges more.
Basic organism energy flow {basal metabolism rate}| sustains life. People have energy-use rate while completely resting, typically 1600 calories per day. Human rate averages 1000 calories per kilogram per hour. Rate is proportional to body surface and body weight. Whole-body average energy flow is 20% to 50% higher than basal metabolism rate.
gender
Rate is higher in males. Rate increases in pregnancy and lactation, up to three times more.
hormones
Thyroid and growth hormones affect basal metabolism rate.
factors
Rate increases in fever. Rate lowers during fasting.
isothermal
Metabolism typically is in isothermal environments, like sea or warm-blooded animals.
warm-bloodedness
Warm-blooded animals use up to ten times more energy than cold-blooded animals. Warm-blooded animals can live in wider temperature ranges and move faster. Temperature constancy requires muscle movement to heat tissues. Temperature constancy requires mechanisms to cool tissues. Brain controls temperature. Parents must keep eggs and babies warm. Temperature control turns off during sleep. Warm-bloodedness can be at different temperatures in different conditions. Food quantity must be more. Senses must find food. Memory must remember food locations. Planning must improved for better food strategies. Chewing must be more efficient. Breathing passage alters to allow breathing while eating.
Bonds {phosphate bond}| can store energy for biochemical reactions. Phosphate bonding is reversible. Molecules {adenosine monophosphate} (AMP) can have one nucleotide and one phosphate. Molecules {adenosine diphosphate} (ADP) can have one nucleotide and two phosphates. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) has one nucleotide and three phosphates.
Cells use energy in different ways {troph}. Organisms {phototroph} can use sunlight for energy. Non-sulfur purple bacteria {photoorganotroph} are photosynthetic. Organisms {chemotroph} can use energy-containing molecules and oxidation-reduction reactions for energy. Organisms {lithotroph} can use water, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur, ammonia, hydrogen, or ferrous compounds as electron donors to cause oxidation. Organisms {organotroph} can use glucose and other organic electron donors to cause oxidation.
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Date Modified: 2022.0225